The story of Hanukah really begins in the fourth century B.C.E., when Alexander the Great invaded and conquered the Middle East. The Jews and the other peoples in the area soon became exposed to the rich culture of Greek life, and Hellenism, the blend of Greek culture and Eastern traditions, became widespread. This diffusion of the foreign culture into the area only intensified after Alexander's death, when his kingdom was split into three: the Macedonian kingdom in Europe; Asia (including Judea), ruled by the Seleucids of Syria; and Egypt.

The Seleucid rulers for a time allowed the Jews to maintain control over their religious institutions and practices. Judaism was the state religion, the Pentateuch was the constitution of the land, and the High Priest was seen as both the religious and political leader of the country. During this time Hellenism continued to spread among the inhabitants of Judea, particularly among the upper and ruling classes. By the second century B.C.E., the traditions and practices of Judaism seem old-fashioned and embarrassing to many assimilated, Hellenized Jews. A division arose among the people of Judea between those who favored aggressive assimilation to Greek life and culture, with the abandonment of many Jewish practices, and those who wished to preserve the ancestral traditions of the Pentateuch.

With the rise of Antiochus Ephiphanes IV as the new Syrian Seleucid ruler, a new element was introduced into this growing tension. Needing money for a proposed invasion of Egypt, Antiochus accepted a substantial payment from a ruling Jewish family and replaced the existing high priest with a member of that family, one who was more sympathetic to Hellenization and to the Syrian rule. Soon Temple duties were neglected, monetary offerings were made to Greek gods, and a Greek gymnasium was built in Jerusalem. Soon afterwards, Antiochus once again appointed a new high priest, one whose family paid an even higher sum. While Antiochus was away fighting in Egypt, tensions erupted in warfare between the followers of the different Hellenized high priests, and sentiment for independence from Seleucid rule also emerged. After returning from Egypt, Antiochus reinstated his choice for the high priest, and sacked the Temple in Jerusalem as punishment.

The sacking of the Temple was a particular shock for one group of pious Jews, known as the Hasidim, who were most unhappy with the Hellenistic pressures of Antiochus and his followers. Previously, however, the Hasidim had not taken action, for they believed that they were bound by the Torah not to revolt against a foreign king, seeing that king as God's instrument, as a rod of God's anger, for not observing the traditions faithfully. Yet the action by Antiochus against the Temple was seen as a sign that God was angry at their failure to do something about the rampant Hellenization. Soon, the Hasidim began harassing the more Hellenized Jews of Jerusalem.

To Antiochus, the turmoil in Jerusalem represented no less than a revolt against him and his attempts to bring Hellenism to those "stubborn, rebellious Jews who refused to practice and worship with the citizens of the world." He also decided that the "fanatics" clinging to the traditional ways must go, and hundreds of Hasidim were killed. In addition, he issued a series of edicts, attempting to "purify" Judaism so that it could become a conforming religion in the great Seleucid empire. These edicts included a cessation of all study of the Torah, punishable by death; monthly sacrifices to the Greek gods; and the introduction of sacred prostitution in the Temple, along with a statue of Zeus and the sacrifice of pigs on the altar.

Backed by the power of the king and the growing religious indifference and assimilation of the ruling elite, the rituals of Zeus worship extended widely in Judea. Hellenization seemed unstoppable; the few who did resist were arrested and killed. Those caught observing the Sabbath or practicing circumcision were condemned to death. As more and more innocent people were killed for following the traditional ways of Judaism, the Hasidim concluded that the only resistance possible was martyrdom, and to wait for God to act in history.

Yet some Jewish factions were not content to wait. In 167 B.C.E., in the northern town of Modiin, resentment over the introduction of pig sacrifice at the local altar turned into an act of rebellion. A local priest named Mattathias violently prevented the sacrifice of a pig and tore down the sacrilegious altar. Although sharing the same commitment to Jewish traditional practice as the Hasidim, Mattathias argued that any king who commanded the violation of Torah could not be an instrument of God, and that revolt against that king was not only possible but required. One cannot always wait of God to act in history - sometimes, humans must act first, he argued.

Mattathias and his five sons fled to the mountains to escape, and were soon joined by other Jews who shared their philosophy. Too small and weak to take on Syrian forces head on, Mattathias began a guerilla war that benefited from their knowledge of local terrain and from the sympathies of the local population, many of whom were opposed to Hellenization. After his death, his son Judah the Maccabee took over the leadership of the revolt. Soon even Jews who were moderately involved in Hellenistic culture joined the revolt, realizing what was at stake. After three years of warfare, a truce was negotiated, and Jews were allowed to observe their own laws as of old. A year later, with Syrian troops distracted by a war elsewhere, Judah was able to recapture Jerusalem, and drive Antiochus' appointed priest into exile.

At first, nothing was done to restore the Temple. In deference to the beliefs of the Hasidim, the Maccabees awaited the fulfillment of prophecies in the Book of Daniel that would see the downfall of the Seleucid empire and the restoration of the Temple under God's command and direction. They waited throughout the fall, and into the winter; finally, on the 25th day of the month of Kislev, the third anniversary of the day the Temple was desecrated by the pig sacrifices, Judah decided to proceed and rededicate the Temple. By his actions, Judah decided that the age of prophecy and miracles had come to an end for the present. Until the ultimate return of God at the end of days, human victory, aided by God, would have to serve as an adequate basis for renewing the Temple.

A ceremony based on the eight-day dedication of the Tabernacle by Moses in the wilderness, and on the dedication of the first Temple by Solomon, was held, with the liturgy focused on the lighting of the great Temple candelabrum known as the menorah. (A later tradition told by the Rabbis of the first century C.E. adds that this menorah was fueled by enough oil to only last one day, yet somehow the flames burned for eight days and eight nights.)

Although the Temple had been rededicated, and Jews were once again allowed to observe without fear of persecution, turmoil and fighting between the followers of the Maccabees and the armies of the Seleucid rulers over political rule and rule of Jerusalem continued for years afterwards. Finally, beginning in 152 B.C.E., the Maccabees took full control of the priesthood, the Temple, and the political positions of Judea. Their dynasty, known as the Hasmonean dynasty, would rule an independent Judea for decades to come.

Rabbi Sally Finestone is the rabbi of Congregation Or Atid in Wayland and a member of ShalomBoston.com's Board of Advisors.